RAISED COLOURS

(за знаме) hoisted, raised

(който се вее) floating, flying

с развети знамена with flying colours, with flags flying

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развя̀т,

мин. страд. прич. (и като прил.), -а, -о, -развѐти (за знаме) hoisted, raised; ( който се вее) floating, flying; \развята грива flowing/flying mane; с развети знамена with flying colours, with flags flying.

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चतुर् num. a. [चत्-उरन् Uṇ.5.58] (always in pl.; m. चत्वारः; f. चतस्रः; n. चत्वारि) Four; चत्वारो वयमृत्विजः Ve.1.25; चतस्रो$वस्था बाल्यं कौमारं यौवनं वार्धकं चेति; चत्वारि शृङ्गा त्रयो अस्य पादाः &c.; शेषान् मासान् गमय चतुरो लोचने मील- यित्वा Me.11. -ind. Four times. [cf. Zend chathru; Gr. tessares; L. quatuor.] [In Comp. the र् of चतुर् is changed to a Visarga (which in some cases becomes श्, ष् or स्, or remains unchanged) before words beginning with hard consonants.]

-Comp. -अंशः a fourth part.

-अङ्ग a. having 4 members, quadripartite.

(-ङ्म्) 1 a complete army consisting of elephants, chariots, cavalry and infantry; चतुरङ्गसमायुक्तं मया सह च तं नय Rām.1.2. 1; एको हि खञ्जनवरो नलिनीदलस्थो दृष्टः करोति चतुरङ्गबलाधिपत्यम् Ś. Til.4; चतुरङ्गबलो राजा जगतीं वशमानयेत् । अहं पञ्चाङ्गबलवाना- काशं वशमानये ॥ Subhāṣ.

-2 a sort of chess.

-अङ्गिकः A kind of horse, having four curls on the forehead; यस्य ललाटे भ्रमरचतुष्टयं स चतुरङ्किको नाम । Śālihotra of Bhoj.25.

-अङ्गिन् a. having four parts. (

-नी) a complete army, see चतुरङ्ग.

-अङ्गुलम् 1 the four fingers of the hand.

-2 four fingers broad.

-अन्त a. bordered on all sides; भूत्वा चिराय चतुरन्तमहीसपत्नी Ś.4.19.

-अन्ता the earth.

-अशीत a. eighty-fourth.

-अशीति a. or f. eighty four.

-अश्र, -अस्र a. (for अश्रि-स्रि)

1 four cornered, quardran- gular; R.6.1. A quality of gems; Kau. A.2.11.

-2 symmetrical, regular or handsome in all parts; बभूव तस्याश्चतुरस्रशोभि वपुः Ku.1.32.

(-श्रः, स्रः) 1 a square.

-2 a quardrangular figure.

-3 (in astr.) N. of the fourth and eighth lunar mansions.

-अहन् a period of four days.

-आत्मन् m. N. of Viṣṇu.

-आननः, -मुखः an epithet of Brahmā; इतरतापशतानि यथेच्छया वितर तानि सहे चतुरानन Udb.

-आश्रमम् the four orders or stages of the religious life of a Brāhmaṇa.

-उत्तर a. increased by four.

-उषणम् the four hot spices, i. e. black pepper, long pepper, dry ginger, and the root of long pepper.

-कर्ण (चतुष्कर्ण) a. heard by two persons only; Pt.1.99.

-ष्काष्ठम् ind. In four directions. चतुष्काष्ठं क्षिपन् वृक्षान्... Bk.9.62.

-कोण (चतुष्कोण) a. square, quadrangular. (

-णः) a square, tetragon, any quadrilateral figure.

-गतिः 1 the Supreme Soul.

-2 a tortoise.

-गवः a carriage drawn by four oxen.

-गुण a. four times, four-fold, quadruple.

-चत्वारिंशत् (चतुश्च- त्वारिंशत्) a. forty-four; ˚रिंश, ˚रिंशत्तम forty-fourth.

-चित्यः A pedestal, a raised square; चतुश्चित्यश्च तस्यासी- दष्टादशकरात्मकः Mb.14.88.32.

- णवत (चतुर्नवत) a. ninety-fourth, or with ninety-four added; चतुर्णवतं शतम् 'one hundred and ninety four'.

-दन्तः an epithet of Airāvata, the elephant of Indra.

-दश a. fourteenth.

-दशन् a. fourteen. ˚रत्नानि (pl.) the fourteen 'jewels' churned out of the ocean; (their names are contained in the following popular Maṅgalāṣṭaka:-- लक्ष्मीः कौस्तुभपारिजातकसुरा धन्वन्तरिश्चन्द्रमा गावः कामदुघाः सुरेश्वरगजो रम्भादिदेवाङ्गनाः । अश्वः सप्तमुखो विषं हरिधनुः शङ्खो$मृतं चाम्बुधे रत्नानीह चतुर्दश प्रतिदिनं कुर्युः सदा मङ्गलम् ॥). ˚विद्या (pl.) the fourteen lores; (they are:-- षडङ्गमिश्रिता वेदा धर्मशास्त्रं पुराणकम् । मीमांसा तर्कमपि च एता विद्याश्चतुर्दश ॥).

-दशी the fourteenth day of a lunar fortnight.

-दिशम् the four quarters taken collectively.

-दिशम् ind. towards the four quarters, on all sides.

-दोलः, -लम् a royal litter.

-द्वारम् 1 a house with four entrances on four sides.

-2 four doors taken collectively.

-नवति a. or f. ninety-four.

-पञ्च a. (चतुपञ्च or चतुष्पञ्च) four or five.

-पञ्चाशत् f. (चतुःपञ्चाशत् or चतुष्पञ्चाशत्) fifty-four.

-पथः (चतुःपथः or चतुष्पथः) (

-थम् also) a place where four roads meet, a crossway; Ms.4.39,9,264. (

-थः) a Brāhmaṇa.

-पद or

-पद् a. (चतुष्पद)

1 having four feet; यथा चतुष्पत्सु च केसरी वरः Rām.4.11.93.

-2 consisting of four limbs. (

-दः) a quadruped. (

-दी) a stanza of four lines; पद्यं चतुष्पदी तच्च वृत्तं जातिरिति द्विधा Chand. M.1.

-पाटी A river. L. D. B.

-पाठी (चतुष्पाठी) a school for Brāhmaṇas in which the four Vedas are taught and repeated.

-पाणिः (चतुष्पाणिः) an epithet of Viṣṇu.

-पाद्-द (चतुष्पद्-द) a. 1. quadruped.

-2 consisting of four members or parts. (-m.)

1 a qua- druped.

-2 (in law) a judicial procedure (trial of suits) consisting of four processes; i. e. plea, defence, rejoinder, and judgment.

-3 The science of archery consisting of ग्रहण, धारण, प्रयोग and प्रतिकारः; यो$स्त्रं चतुष्पात् पुनरेव चक्रे । द्रोणः प्रसन्नो$भिवाद्यस्त्वया$सौ Mb.5.3.12-13; प्रतिपेदे चतुष्पादं धनुर्वेदं नृपात्मजः ibid 192.61.

-पार्श्वम् the four sides of a square.

-बाहुः an epithet of Viṣṇu. (

-हु n.) a square.

-भद्रम् the aggregate of the four ends of human life (पुरुषार्थ); i. e. धर्म, अर्थ, काम and मोक्ष.

-भागः the fourth part, a quarter.

-भावः N. of Viṣṇu.

-भुज a. 1 quadrangular.

-2 having four arms; Bg.11.46.

(-जः) 1 an epithet of Viṣṇu; R.16.3.

-2 a quadrangular figure.

-3 square. (

-जम्) a square.

-मासम् a period of four months; (reckoned from the 11th day in the bright half of आषाढ to the 11th day in the bright half of कार्तिक).

-मुख having four faces. (

-खः) an epithet of Brahmā; त्वत्तः सर्वं चतु- र्मुखात् R.1.22.

(-खम्) 1. four faces; Ku.2.17.

-2 a house with four entrances.

-मण्डलम् a four-fold arrangement (of troops &c.)

-मेधः One who has offered four sacrifices, namely अश्वमेध, पुरुषमेध, सर्वमेध, and पितृमेध.

-युगम् the aggregate of the four Yugas or ages of the world.

-युज् a. Consisting of four; चतुर्युजो रथाः सर्वे Mb.5.155.13.

-रात्रम् (चतूरात्रम्) an aggregate of four nights.

-वक्त्रः an epithet of Bra- hmā.

-वर्गः the four ends of human life taken collec- tively (पुरुषार्थ); i. e. धर्म, अर्थ, काम and मोक्षः; चतुर्वर्गफलं ज्ञानं कालावस्थाश्चतुर्युगाः R.1.22.

-वर्णः 1. the four classes or castes of the Hindus; i. e. ब्राह्मण, क्षत्रिय, वैश्य and शूद्र; चतुर्वर्णमयो लोकः R.1.22.

-2 four principal colours.

-वर्षिका a cow four years old.

-विंश a. 1 twenty fourth.

-2 having twenty-four added; as चतुर्विंशं शतम् (124).

-विंशति a. or f. twenty-four.

-विंशतिक a. consisting of twenty-four.

-विद्य a. one who has studied the four Vedas.

-विद्या the four Vedas.

-विध a. of four sorts or kinds, four-fold.

-वेद a. familiar with the four Vedas. (

-दः) the Supreme Soul.

-व्यूङः N. of Viṣṇu. (

-हम्) medical science. a. having four kinds of appearance; hence ˚वादिन् 'asserting the four forms of पुरुषोत्तम viz. वासुदेव, संकर्षण, प्रद्युम्न and अनिरुद्ध.'

-शालम् (चतुःशालम्, चतुश्शालम्, चतुःशाली, चतुश्शाली) a square of four buildings, a quadrangle enclosed by four buildings; अलं चतु शालमिमं प्रवेश्य Mk.3.7; देवीनां चतुःशालमिदम् Pratimā 6.

-षष्टि a. or f.

1 sixty-four.

-2 N. for the Ṛigveda consisting 64 Adhyāyas. ˚कलाः (pl.) the sixty-four arts.

-सनः N. of Viṣṇu having four embodiments of सनक, सनन्दन, सनत्कुमार and सनातन; आदौ सनात् स्वतपसः स चतुःसनो$भूत् Bhāg.2.7.5.

-सप्तति a. or f. seventy-four.

-समम् an unguent of four things, sandal, agallochum, saffron and musk; L. D. B.

-सीमा the boundaries on all four sides.

-हायन, -ण a. four years old; (the f. of this word ends in आ if it refers to an inanimate object, and in ई if it refers to an animal).

-होत्रकम् the four priests taken collectively.

SUBJECT AREA: Architecture and building

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The name of Le Corbusier is synonymous with the International style of modern architecture and city planning, one utilizing functionalist designs carried out in twentieth-century materials with modern methods of construction. Charles-Edouard Jeanneret, born in the watch-making town of La Chaux-de-Fonds in the Jura mountain region, was the son of a watch engraver and dial painter. In the years before 1918 he travelled widely, studying building in many countries. He learned about the use of reinforced concrete in the studio of Auguste Perret and about industrial construction under Peter Behrens. In 1917 he went to live in Paris and spent the rest of his life in France; in 1920 he adopted the name of Le Corbusier, one derived from that of his ancestors (Le Corbesier), and ten years later became a French citizen.

Le Corbusier's long working life spanned a career divided into three distinct parts. Between 1905 and 1916 he designed a number of simple and increasingly modern houses; the years 1921 to 1940 were ones of research and debate; and the twenty years from 1945 saw the blossoming of his genius. After 1917 Le Corbusier gained a reputation in Paris as an architect of advanced originality. He was particularly interested in low-cost housing and in improving accommodation for the poor. In 1923 he published Vers une architecture, in which he planned estates of mass-produced houses where all extraneous and unnecessary features were stripped away and the houses had flat roofs and plain walls: his concept of "a machine for living in". These white boxes were lifted up on stilts, his pilotis, and double-height living space was provided internally, enclosed by large areas of factory glazing. In 1922 Le Corbusier exhibited a city plan, La Ville contemporaine, in which tall blocks made from steel and concrete were set amongst large areas of parkland, replacing the older concept of city slums with the light and air of modern living. In 1925 he published Urbanisme, further developing his socialist ideals. These constituted a major reform of the industrial-city pattern, but the ideas were not taken up at that time. The Depression years of the 1930s severely curtailed architectural activity in France. Le Corbusier designed houses for the wealthy there, but most of his work prior to 1945 was overseas: his Centrosoyus Administration Building in Moscow (1929–36) and the Ministry of Education Building in Rio de Janeiro (1943) are examples. Immediately after the end of the Second World War Le Corbusier won international fame for his Unité d'habitation theme, the first example of which was built in the boulevard Michelet in Marseille in 1947–52. His answer to the problem of accommodating large numbers of people in a small space at low cost was to construct an immense all-purpose block of pre-cast concrete slabs carried on a row of massive central supports. The Marseille Unité contains 350 apartments in eight double storeys, with a storey for shops half-way up and communal facilities on the roof. In 1950 he published Le Modular, which described a system of measurement based upon the human male figure. From this was derived a relationship of human and mathematical proportions; this concept, together with the extensive use of various forms of concrete, was fundamental to Le Corbusier's later work. In the world-famous and highly personal Pilgrimage Church of Notre Dame du Haut at Ronchamp (1950–5), Le Corbusier's work was in Expressionist form, a plastic design in massive rough-cast concrete, its interior brilliantly designed and lit. His other equally famous, though less popular, ecclesiastical commission showed a contrasting theme, of "brutalist" concrete construction with uncompromisingly stark, rectangular forms. This is the Dominican Convent of Sainte Marie de la Tourette at Eveux-sur-l'Arbresle near Lyon, begun in 1956. The interior, in particular, is carefully worked out, and the lighting, from both natural and artificial sources, is indirect, angled in many directions to illuminate vistas and planes. All surfaces are carefully sloped, the angles meticulously calculated to give optimum visual effect. The crypt, below the raised choir, is painted in bright colours and lit from ceiling oculi.

One of Le Corbusier's late works, the Convent is a tour de force.

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SUBJECT AREA: Textiles

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Little is known about the early life of Robert Kay except that he may have moved to France with his father, John Kay of Bury in 1747 but must have returned to England and their home town of Bury soon after. He may have been involved with his father in the production of a machine for making the wire covering for hand cards to prepare cotton for spinning. However, John Aikin, writing in 1795, implies that this was a recent invention. Kay's machine could pierce the holes in the leather backing, cut off a length of wire, bend it and insert it through the holes, row after row, in one operation by a person turning a shaft. The machine preserved in the Science Museum, in London's South Kensington, is more likely to be one of Robert's machine than his father's, for Robert carried on business as a cardmaker in Bury from 1791 until his death in 1801. The flying shuttle, invented by his father, does not seem to have been much used by weavers of cotton until Robert invented the drop box in 1760. Instead of a single box at the end of the sley, Robert usually put two, but sometimes three or four, one above another; the boxes could be raised or lowered. Shuttles with either different colours or different types of weft could be put in the boxes and the weaver could select any one by manipulating levers with the left hand while working the picking stick with the right to drive the appropriate shuttle across the loom. Since the selection could be made without the weaver having to pick up a shuttle and place it in the lath, this invention helped to speed up weaving, especially of multi-coloured checks, which formed a large part of the Lancashire output.

Between 1760 and 1763 Robert Kay may have written a pamphlet describing the invention of the flying shuttle and the attack on his father, pointing out how much his father had suffered and that there had been no redress. In February 1764 he brought to the notice of the Society of Arts an improvement he had made to the flying shuttle by substituting brass for wood, which enabled a larger spool to be carried.

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